Thursday, August 22, 2019
Assessing ecosystem health Essay Example for Free
Assessing ecosystem health Essay The simple summary of the article is shown below.       Metaphors drawn from human health can be applied in environmental assessment at ecosystem levels; hence the concept of ecosystem medicine may also be appropriate in trying to understand the environment. By using metaphors one can understand a difficult concept into more known terms since a comparison as to what is common in medicine and in ecosystem. Human use science but they employ art also in appreciating and studying things. As a necessary consequence of using arts or even science  errors in treatment could also happen as there could also be cased of false alarms in diagnosing the environment.        But for a successful application of the medical concepts in ecosystem, there could be a need have a greater-defined taxonomy of ecosystems to afford a better correlations and analysis of the different variables involved in ecosystems. Taxonomy will allow more definitions of technical terms in ecosystems which could be used by scientists and scholars to make a thorough investigation and analysis.        The health status of ecosystems in turn could also serve a good barometer to assess the present status or health of the environment. This must be so since the better the ecosystem , the better the environment. Question: 2.  Write a review of Section 1 (p-15: Introduction) and also indicate important points which the author has talked about to be discuss in the paper; any critique; anything missing? Any important information we get from this section? Any interesting thing we get from this section, and do we really find it in the following section? The simple introduction is shown below.       The author is saying that whatever the ecosystem now suffers is partly caused by human activity. He is using a metaphor to convey his message. That the environment’s health must also be determined like that of a human individual. Like a human being who is subject to stress, the author illustrates that the ecosystem also suffers from effects of various stresses. He cited as examples of stresses the following: harvesting, introduction of exotic species, generation of waste residuals, physical restructuring, and even extreme natural events which affect the environment. Question 3. Write a review of Section 2 (p-16: Ecosystem: a nebulous concept?) What do we learn from this Section? What has author tried to communicate and how successful he has been to communicate? And also indicate the significance of this section related to this article, if you see any critique to this section then write it with a complete logic? Is ecosystem a nebulous concept?       The author is saying that while others my think that term ‘ecosystems’ may be indefinite of meaning because of difficulty of delimiting boundaries on the basis of conventional observations. Ecosystems are not isolated, but intimately connected, or nested within adjacent or larger systems as seen in the continuum from rivers to lakes; from estuaries to the sea; from the sea to the worlds ocean. The author agrees that for management and assessment, ecosystem constitutes a relevant macro-level unit for describing the environment (Rowe, 1961, 1989; Bird Rapport, 1986).       The author is very clear in describing the ecosystems as a dynamic, complex, and open systems that are in constant change over ecological, evolutionary, and geological time (Rapport Regier, 1992), and such they exhibit chameleon-like properties; that is, they might exist in a number of alternative forms, the particular composition being very much influenced by internal dynamics and by interactions with neighboring systems (Holling, 1985; Rapport Regier, 1992). Question 4. Write a review of Section 3 (p-16: Towards an Ecosystem Health Model) what do we learn from this Section? What has author tried to communicate and how successful he has been to communicate? And also indicate the significance of this section related to this article, if you see any critique to this section then write it with a complete logic? The quest for understanding leads to quest for having health ecosystem.       The author is saying that in the quest for a more comprehensive understanding of the process of ecosystem breakdown and recovery, he has come to think that humans are engaged in some form of ecosystem medicine (Rapport et al., 1979). He said that introducing the medical metaphor suggests that, like physicians, ecosystem practitioners are in need of systematic procedures by which to recognize illness, devise protocols to rule-in or rule-out possible causes, and prescribe treatment. (Rapport, 1992) (Paraphrasing made)       When it comes to treatment, medicine suggests several options: following internal medicine, ecosystems may be treated by regulating the blood chemistry of the system; following surgery, ecosystems may be treated by wholesale physical and biological restructuring. The latter may involve both removal of undesirable elements and introduction (grafting) of desirable ecosystem components. I should hasten to add that we are concerned here with the application of scientific methodologies developed in medicine in order to assess the state of ecosystem health. In so doing I neither subscribes to the view that ecosystems can be considered as organisms (for clearly there are not not not not substantive differences in both the mechanisms and degree of integration as well as in the dynamics of these two systems) nor do I suggest.  (Rapport, 1992) (Paraphrasing made) Question 5. Write a review of Section 4 (p-17: The subjective nature of health assessments) what do we learn from this Section? What has author tried to communicate and how successful he has been to communicate? And also indicate the significance of this section related to this article, if you see any critique to this section then write it with a complete logic? Subjectivity is employed in assessing the ecosystem.        The author is equating the subjective judgment used in health assessment as to what is being done in assessing the ecosystem. He said that clearly, in many cases, the diagnosis and treatment of sickness also uses gut feel or hunches in addition to the scientific way.. Inevitably, there enters a degree of subjectivity in evaluating the health status of an individual or an ecosystem. (Rapport, 1992) (Paraphrasing made)        The author mentioned some ecosystem transformations that are made without recourse to societal values or limitations of scientific understanding and cited as example the demise of the forest downwind of a smelter. Nevertheless, he admits that more frequently  social value-judgments and the limitations of science appear to mix as a form of art. The author gave as an example the conversion to plantations of radiata pine (Pinus radiata) of highly diversified indigenous forests in New Zealand, where there are opposing view between conservationists and foresters. (Rapport, 1992) (Paraphrasing made) Question 6. Write a review of Section 5 (p-18: Early Warning Signs of Pathological Ecosystems) what do we learn from this Section? What has author tried to communicate and how successful he has been to communicate? And also indicate the significance of this section related to this article, if you see any critique to this section then write it with a complete logic? (This section should cover all sub sections of the main section, one by one) Early warning signs of pathological ecosystems have obstacles.        The author mentioned three obstacles in providing early warning of ecosystem pathology and they are: Firstly, basic processes such as nutrient cycling and primary productivity, is highly cyclical and irregular, varying from year to year, seasonally and diurnally. Such variability and seemingly random behavior raises havoc with detection of the onset of much pathology that beset aquatic ecosystems. Secondly, early symptoms of ecosystem degradation may be missed or discovered only after pathology is well advanced. Thirdly, false alarms are easily sounded owing to a still far from adequate understanding of the long-term dynamic behavior of ecosystems. Ecosystems have common systems of degradation.       Under section 5.1 on â€Å"Health indicators at the ecosystem level,†the author is discussing the identification of common symptoms of ecosystem degradation. These common symptoms are termed the ecosystem distress syndrome (Rapport et al., 1985) and characterize a large number of ecosystems under stresses of various types. The author citing Rapport, 1991, said that with reference to aquatic ecosystems, the ecosystem distress syndrome comprises the following symptoms: (1) alteration in biotic community structure to favor smaller forms; (2) reduced species diversity; (3) increased dominance by r selected species; (4) increased dominance by exotic species; (5) shortened food-chain length; (6) increased disease prevalence; and (7) reduced population stability. (Rapport, 1992) (Paraphrasing made) Like human diseases, ecosystems have risk factors, too.        Under section 5.2 on â€Å"Ecosystem risk factors,†the author   supports the idea of identification of individuals at risk for certain types of diseases, as those found in coronary disease, which will shift man’s attention from treating illness to prevention. The author argues that using the same principle of identifying risk in ecosystem, prevention of the ecosystem’s degradation could be prevented. (Rapport, 1992) (Paraphrasing made)        He believes that this approach works best where a single dominant stress acts to transform ecosystems, such as may occur in the process of eutrophication or acidification of aquatic ecosystems. He said that much is known about the actions of these two stresses and the vulnerabilities of the recipient aquatic systems (e.g., Minns et al., 1990). He then argued that combining the findings from case studies of impacts of such specific stresses on ecosystems with the knowledge of current stress loadings and sensitivities of recipient ecosystems enables one to arrive at an ecosystem level risk assessment. (Rapport, 1992) (Paraphrasing made)        He was able to cite the development of various factor analyses similar to the manner in which risks of coronary disease are now assessed in ecosystem health evaluations. He cited the work of Minns et al. (1990) who have examined the impact of acid precipitation on the loss of fish species in vulnerable eastern Canadian lakes. (Rapport, 1992) (Paraphrasing made)        With these studies the author is really looking forward for the prevention of ecosystem’s degradation. Validation of treatment for ecosystem is a problem, too.       Under section 5.3 on â€Å"Validation of treatment†the author also talks of validation of treatment which is considered the bottom line for medical practitioners. This premised on the idea that once an illness has been diagnosed, the question turns squarely to the most effective treatment. Treatment validation provides a basis for selection among alternative procedures.       In applying the medical terminology to the ecosystem, the author said that success rates for a given treatment cannot be evaluated without factoring out the influences of the other stress factors. He cited an example the evaluation of the effectiveness of harvesting regulations on restoring seal populations in the Baltic Sea. He said that it is necessary to take into account impairments to seal reproductive success owing to the presence of PCBs and related toxic substances (Helle et al., 1976). Here, just as in human medicine, he said, â€Å"we have the need to develop methodologies to factor out co-morbidities.† He mentioned the need for a far better taxonomy of ecosystem ills than we presently have. He said that one currently may describe ecosystem pathologies in terms of air pollution damage to forests, eutrophication of aquatic systems, acidification of aquatic and terrestrial systems, etc. but he said that these are very rudimentary categories. He therefore suggested that for each of these classifications there are many finer subdivisions which need to be categorized before one can readily compare case histories. (Rapport, 1992) (Paraphrasing made) Question 7. Write a review of Section 6 (p-21: Reporting on the state of environment from an ecosystem health perspective) what do we learn from this Section? What has author tried to communicate and how successful he has been to communicate? And also indicate the significance of this section related to this article, if you see any critique to this section then write it with a complete logic? Environment could be seen from the health of the ecosystems.        The author is trying to make a picture of the environment on the basis of the status of the ecosystem. He cited Canada as having subdivided its land areas into 15 ecozones, defined on the basis of Physiographic, vegetation type, soils/surface materials, climate, and human use. He reported that the forests of most ecozones are impacted by a combination of natural and cultural stresses (particularly in the Montaine Cordillera, Boreal Shield, and Atlantic Maritime ecozones). Included in the stresses is fire, insects and diseases, over-harvesting, conversion of forests to agriculture, construction of transportation and utility corridors, air pollution, and climate-induced stresses such as red belt and wind throw.  He then cited the relationship of increase disease in ecosystems which are more stressed. (Rapport, 1992) (Paraphrasing made)        The author also mentioned that the other sections of the 1986 Canadian State of Environment Report relate to aquatic ecosystems, both the Laurentian Great Lakes and other Inland Waters, as well as the three marine systems (Atlantic, Pacific and Northern). He also cited that the major stresses affecting these ecosystems include: over-harvesting, construction of dams and diversions, contaminants (including toxic substances), and the purposeful or accidental introduction of exotic species (particularly in the Great Lakes and inland waters). Further, in all but the Northern marine ecosystems, land use change (particularly the drainage of wetlands for agricultural and recreational purposes) and sewage inflows added significant additional stress. (Rapport, 1992) (Paraphrasing made) Question 8. What do we understand from the Conclusions written on p-23, are they appropriate; any critique; any thing missed in conclusion; any thing over emphasized. The simple conclusion could be done as shown below.       We understand from the conclusion that ecosystem behavior under stress is complex and processes leading to degradation and recovery are only partially understood, nonetheless, ecosystem medicine is coming of age at least as a conjectural art. There therefore many challenges along the way. There also a combination of objective and subjective criteria is called into play in rendering judgments as to the health of ecosystems.       Another thing that  I did understand in the conclusion is that in talking about assessing the ecosystem from a point of view need not involve or borrow concepts from the medical sciences to understand the system but that the author argues that use of the metaphor suggests more systematic approaches to the diagnosis and treatment of ecosystem ills, underscores the importance of validation of remedial action interventions, and draws attention to the inherent subjective nature of health assessments. Further, the metaphor provides a language in which the concern for ecosystem health becomes a natural extension of the concern for individual health The conclusions drawn are appropriate and does not in any way insist that understanding how to manage the ecosystem be necessarily made reference to the medical science field. It could be made from different points of view and the advantage of using a field of study to bring out the issues via use of metaphor may contribute much to information campaign. Question 9. Is this article helpful in planning and managing environment, if yes how? If no, why? What is the relevance of the article in planning and management of the environment?        I believe this article is helpful in planning and managing environment. Different persons belong to different professions and different professions have their own languages. By using metaphor in medicine to discuss ecosystem and the environment, would be getting the member of the medical profession to understand the issues more clearly and to get their support for the cause of the environment Question 10. Is the title appropriate, if yes WHY? if no then suggest some other title, and also justify the title with a logical reasoning. How show the article be titled appropriately?         The title evaluating ecosystem health seems not to include treatment on ecosystem treatment. Since it talks also of treatment the title could be modified as â€Å"Evaluating and Maintaining the Ecosystem’s Health.† By simply saying evaluating it the discussion on treatment should not have been part. Reference: Bird, P. M. D. J. Rapport, 1986. State of the Environment Report for Canada. Ministry of Supply and Services.263 pp. Helle, E., M. Olsson S. Jensen, 1976. PCB levels correlated with pathological changes in seal uteri. Ambio 5: 261263. Holling, C. S., 1985. Resilience of ecosystems local surprise and global change. In: T. F. Malone J. G. Roederer (eds), In Global Change, pp. 292317. Cambridge Univ.Press, Cambridge. Minns, C. K., J. E. Moore, D. W. Schindler M. L. Jones, 1990. Assessing the potential extent of damage to inland lakes in eastern Canada due to acidic deposition. 1V. Predicted impacts on species richness in seven groups of aquatic biota. Can. J. Fish Aquat. Sci. 47: 821830. Rapport, D. J., A. M. Friend, 1979. Towards a comprehensive framework for environmental statistics: a stressresponse approach. Statist. Can., Ottawa. Rapport, D. J., H. A. Regier, 1992. Disturbance and stress effects on ecological systems. In: B. C. Patten S. E. Rapport, D. J., 1991. Myths in the foundations of economics and ecology. Biol. J. Liimean Soc. 44: 185202. Rapport, D. J., H. A. Regier T. C. Hutchinson, 1985. Ecosystem behaviour under stress. Amer. Natur. 125: 617640. Rapport, D., (1992), Evaluating ecosystem health, Journal of Aquatic Ecosystem Health, M. Munawar (ed.), Assessing Aquatic Ecosystem Health: Rationale, Challenges, and Strategies. KluwerAcademic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands Rowe, J. S., 1961. The level of integration concept and ecology. Ecology 42(2): 420427. Rowe, J. S., 1989. Implications of the Brundtland Commission Report for Canadian forest management. Forestry
Wednesday, August 21, 2019
Cult Of Domesticity Slave Narratives English Literature Essay
Cult Of Domesticity Slave Narratives English Literature Essay Slave narratives give an account of the physical brutality and deprivation that many slaves were forced to endure; slave narrators ultimately write his or her self into an existence recognized by dominant American society. The author illustrates the way he/she overcomes the slaveholding societys continuing attempts to destroy his/her identity; concurrently, the narrator also rewrites that identity to fit the dominant cultures norms, despite the fact that these norms tend to conflict with his/her own experiences during slavery. Male slave narratives have ultimately highlighted on heroic male slaves, not on their wives, daughters or sisters; for a female her relationships as a daughter, sister, wife, mother, and friend would ultimately demonstrate her womanliness and her shared roles with white women readers (who do not need to contest their womanliness). The many different choices Linda has made throughout her life including her attempt to free herself from her masters moral degradati on, her relationship with Mr. Sands, her strategy for saving her children, and her concealment is how she illustrates to her reader the ways in which she has strived to live up to their standards. Ultimately, Linda Brent is caught between the vile, abusive practices of slavery and the idealized cult of domesticity. By focusing almost entirely on the narratives of male slaves, critics have left out half the picture. Harriet Jacobs, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl is representative of African American Orr 2 womens literary tradition, or of a feminine model of identity formation. It is safe to say that both male and female slave narratives strove to counter racial stereotypes; it is also safe to say that black men and women however faced very different stereotypes. Black slave men fought against the stereotype that were boys (transition to manhood as in Douglass) while black women struggled to defend the idea that they were either helpless victims or whores. For a male fugitive, public discourse was a way in which he would declare his place and identity among men. The form in which Jacobs narrative is written is a direct result of gender differences among men and women. Because women slave narrators were held hostages to the nineteenth-century ideal of the cult of domesticity which demanded a standard of feminine purity that slavery denied them, they were excluded from the public discourse of their stories in the dominant culture that publicly insisted on the cult of pure womanhood. Her primarily white readership at the time insisted that women should choose death before dishonor; they would not recognize so-called mothers of children who were bastards. Harriet Jacobs could not demonstrate to her primarily white female readership how she had been the perfect wife or mother that the cult of domesticity demanded but she emphasizes the ways in which she strove to meet those same demands given her peculiar position. Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl present the authors confession of what her readers might consider a sin-ridden past and a justification of her motives to a potentially disapproving readership. Northern white women could have possibly identified with the female slave in times of hardship and may have even made allowances for her behavior under duress, however, Jacobs appears to take for granted that her readers will apply to Linda Brent the moral standards that were imposed upon them. She emphasizes, Slavery is terrible for men; but it is far more terrible Orr 3 for women. Superadded to the burden common to all, they have wrongs, and sufferings, and mortifications peculiarly their own.(119) She calls attention to that of female slaves who suffered horrible mental tortures and humiliation such as sexual harassment and the loss of their children. Jacobs mentions numerous examples of Dr. Flints behavior as proof of the corrupting power of slavery and its negative effects especially on the female slaves maternal and womanly experiences. Dr. Flint batters Brents purity of mind with constant insinuations and harassment; he built a cottage in the field for her to live in but she refused him. If she had accepted his offer, her life would have been spent undergoing more of his foul insults and sexual abuse. Her decision to become a mother was a direct result of Dr. Flints constant sexual advances. Linda admits that she accepted Mr. Sands advances toward her as, deliberate calculation. She states: But, O, ye happy women, whose purity has been sheltered from childhood, who have been free to choose the objects of your affection, whose homes are protected by law, do not judge the poor desolate slave girl too severely! If slavery had been abolished, I, also could have married the man of my choiceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦I wanted to keep myself pure; and under the most adverse circumstances, I tried hard to preserve my self respect; but I was struggling alone in the powerful grasp of the demon slavery; and the monster proved too strong for me. (83-84) Since, Flint denied Brent marriage to a free black man and refused to sell her to anyone, Brent knew that she would never be allowed a traditional home and family therefore not achieving the proper standards of white women. If Linda had the choice to love and marry whom she pleased then, she would gladly take it. But the fact remains she does not. Through her relationship with Mr. Sands she gains some control over her body; if she cannot marry whom she pleases then at least she can choose with whom she will reproduce. By choosing Sands as a lover and father to Orr 4 her children, Brent went against the ideal image of womanhood and instead dealt with the position she was in. Jacobs writes about Mr. Sands: I felt grateful for his sympathy, and encouraged by his kind words. It seemed to me a great thing to have such a friend. By degrees, a more tender feeling crept into my heart. Of course I saw whither all this was tending, I knew the impassable gulf between us; but to be an object of interest to a man who is not married, and who is not her master, is agreeable to the pride and feelings of a slave, if her miserable situation has left her any pride or sentiment. It seems less degrading to give ones self, than to submit to compulsion. There is something akin to freedom in having a lover who has no control over you, except that which he gains by kindness and attachment. (Jacobs 84) She made the choice to willingly give up her virginity outside of marriage; an action that is completely against traditional moral codes. Brent recognizes that it is through her right to choose that a woman gains moral integrity, not through the physical virginity with which the choice is associated. She chooses Sands to upset Dr. Flint in hopes of being free from his sexual advances and to also possibly secure her freedom and that of future children; Of a man who was not my master I could ask to have my children well supported; and in this case, I felt confident I should obtain the boon. I also felt quite sure that they would be made free. (85-86) While attempting to embrace the ideals of womanhood, Brent is able to recognize and disregard the standards that cannot be applied and established for her. She says: Pity me, and pardon me, O virtuous reader! You never knew what it is to be a slave; to be entirely unprotected by law or custom; to have the laws reduce you to the condition of a chattel, entirely subject to the will of another. You never exhausted your ingenuity in avoiding the snares, and eluding the power of a hated tyrant; you never shuddered at the sound of his footsteps, and trembled within hearing of his voice. I know I did wrongà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.Still, in looking back calmly, on the events of my life, I feel that the slave woman ought not to be judged by the same standard as others. (Jacobs 86) This statement declares that other women have no right to criticize Brent for revealing her sexual history unless they have walked in her shoes and been witness to all she has endured. Orr 5 Furthermore, Jacobs argues, that the audience cannot possibly understand what she has been through. The quote is directed to the white female audience and suggests that particularly female slaves should not be judged according to the moral standards of everyone else. Nevertheless, Brent is constantly trying to live up to the cult of true womanhood by attempting to find ways to secure the freedom of her two children. Jacobs emphasizes her narrators maternal emotions towards her children; motherhood depicted in the narrative is significant because it is a strong connection between herself and her readers and, most importantly, one that goes above race and social status. In presenting the life of the slave mother as one of constant misery and pain, Jacobs earn the sympathy of her readers and motivates them to focus on her maternal experience as the reason behind her desire to be free. Lindas actions are mostly determined by the effect they will have on her children and their future liberation. Many female slaves were incapable of keeping their families together but Brent converted her body from a position of exploitation to a vehicle of resistance when she challenged the authority of the slave master and worked to liberate her children. Jacobs write s, My thoughts wandered through the dark past, and over the uncertain future. Alone in my cell, where no eye but Gods could see me, I wept bitter tears. How earnestly I prayed to him to restore me to my children, and enable me to be a useful woman and a good mother! (202). Lindas calculated advantage of being with Mr. Sands was not enough to secure the liberation of her children and her escape from Flints pursuit. Significantly, Linda takes actions that promote the well-being of her children constantly throughout the narrative. She devises a plan to hide in the garret to protect the love she has for her children; she removes her physical body in order to safeguard them. Most importantly, Linda never seriously takes into consideration running away to the North without her children. Her Orr 6 flight is always understood as a necessary precaution for the betterment of their lives and sacrificing her physical and emotional intimacy with them is crucial in order to achieve her ultimate goal: their emancipation. The ending of the narrative was startling. Freedom was gained from none other than Mrs. Bruce who bought the freedom of the children and Linda. Mrs. Bruce is a very significant character in the narrative and stands as a role model of courage and political activism for the audience. She is also an example of a white woman who uses her own motherhood to help that of a slave. The narrative ends with the quote: Reader, my story ends with freedom; not in the usual way, with marriage. I and my children are now free! We are as free from the power of slave holders as are the white people of the north; and though that, according to my ideas, is not saying a great deal, it is a vast improvement in my condition. (Jacobs 302) By stating this, she is explicitly referring to the ideal of the cult of true womanhood. Even though Brent succumbs to the values of her readers she, however, resists their authority to judge her by those values. She makes a significant point about values and life situations; that is, not everyone can be judged by the same standards and points out the ways in which womanhood and motherhood are corrupted by slavery itself. Brents story does not end in the conventional feminine way; the narrative ends, not with a solitary speaker, but with a woman gratefully acknowledging her bonds to her children and friends, bonds that were freely chosen. Jacobs primarily female white readership may have been sympathetic to her pseudonym Lindas struggles to secure the unity of her family, to show extensive sexual encounters between slave and master, and to display the inhumane institution of slavery itself but instead the narrative was written in a trial by jury format (white women being the jury, and Brents life Orr 7 being the trial). By calling upon her fellow women and mothers to be witnesses to her life as a, poor desolate slave girl she challenges them to understand that she could not emulate the standards that were imposed upon white women at the time; in her own way she proved herself to be a worthy woman and mother even if it did not end with marriage.
Tuesday, August 20, 2019
Essay --
Virginia Lash Professor Leedom Earliest Christianity December 2013 Nag Hammadi Library In 1945, two unsuspecting brothers stumbled upon a jar that contained thirteen ancient codices, or texts, in Upper Egypt that had been hidden away for centuries. Their discovery would reshape the world's understanding of religion in more ways than one. These codices, later referred to as the Nag Hammadi library, enlightened the world about an ancient movement known as Gnosticism. In addition, this library revealed itself to be the source that countless scholarly works had referred to for centuries. This chance unearthing has brought much attention and debate to the subjects of earliest Christianity and Gnosticism and its significance in the ancient world, The Nag Hammadi library brought forth a new understanding of Gnosticism, a way to reassess religions in the ancient world, and a new perspective on early Christianity. The unbelievable discovery and analysis of the Nag Hammadi Library also brings a sense of hope, faith that in time more historical discoveries will come about and we will be further enlightened about our pasts, and therefore further prepared for our future. The discovery of the Nag Hammadi library was an odd one. Two brothers Muhammad Ali al-Samman and Abu al-Majd were digging around the cliffs of Al-Oasr for a valuable fertilizer. As they were searching they came across a jar, hoping they had struck gold, the brothers smashed the jar open and instead of being filled with ancient treasures, the contents revealed themselves to be â€Å"thirteen books containing fifty-three texts, a total of 1,153 pages These books turned out to be an astonishing find with significant impact. They were found to be ancient mostly gnostic texts... ...put it â€Å"it helped liberate Gnosticism from the predominantly negative aura that surrounded it. It could be examined as a movement in its own right and on its own terms†. The discovery had a significant impact on how the modern world now viewed the previously unknown and misunderstood movement that was Gnosticism. The unearthing of these texts sparked a new interest in finding out what Gnosticism and how the early Christian Church operated. The texts provided the world a map showing the different perspectives and the lively debates that were happening around the Roman Empire. It showed how the ancient world was a very diverse place when it came to the different sects of all the religions. The Nag Hammadi Codices show how the Gnostics were truly part of that debate circulating their own works with what they thought was the truth, which others had deigned a heresy.
Monday, August 19, 2019
Affirmitive Action in California :: essays research papers
Affirmative Action in California      Affirmative action has been the subject of increasing debate and tension in our society. Affirmative action has divided political parties, communities and campuses across the nation. The basis behind affirmative action is that because of past discrimination and oppression, such as the unequal treatment of women, and the enslavement of African Americans, minorities and women have difficulty competing with their white male counterparts. Tax breaks for home buyers may not be wrong but what is wrong are those who take advantage of all kinds of breaks for themselves while denying affirmative action for the most oppressed of society. The government runs many programs to increase opportunities for various groups including women, racial and ethnic minority groups. Affirmative action is necessary to ensure the recruitment and employment of women, minorities, people with disabilities, and Vietnam veterans. Affirmative action is a term, which refers to a variety of efforts u sed by employers and educational institutions to overcome past and continuing discrimination in order to allow qualified women and minorities to compete equally for jobs, education, and promotional opportunities.      When talking about affirmative action, there is a common misconception between meeting quota and satisfying goals. A quota is a number that must be achieved. Consequently, if a company fails to show it has made an effort toward following this quota the company can be fined. This is every different from an affirmative action goal. A goal is a flexible percentage, which is established by the company to achieve a diverse workforce. The percentage is based on the availability of minorities and females in the area. One of the goals is to make sure that many people are made aware of job openings as possible to ensure that the applicant pool is reflective of the number of people, who are qualified. To accomplish this, employers place advertisements in different types of journals, including journals for women and minorities. Goals and timetables encourage the hiring of members of women and minority groups. Before affirmative action, companies did not post their jobs on bu lletin boards. Somebody just happened to know someone who needed a job and the job was filled. That person was not always the best-qualified person for the job. How can a company possibly tell if it is hiring the best people if they only consider a small portion of the population? One cannot assume that all the white males out there are naturally qualified and all the minorities and women are given breaks because they could not possibly be qualified.
Sunday, August 18, 2019
The Murder of Rasputin Essay -- Russia Russian Revolution History
Rasputin was an important figure in the Russian Revolution. His acclaimed magical powers helped lessen the symptoms of poor Alexei's hemophilia, an awful condition in which the blood doesn't clot. Because Alexei was the heir to the Romanof throne, Tsar Nicholas II and Alexandra were in a stressful situation. They gave Rasputin certain powers that people were jealous of. The aristocrats could not stand a peasant in such a high position. Peasants could not stand the rumors that the tsarina was sleeping with such a weirdo because he had a reputation for being a pervert. Rasputin was seen as a pest who was ruining Russia. To save the monarchy from revolutions, assassins were assigned to murder Rasputin. On the night of December 17, 1916, they tried to kill Rasputin. The plan was simple. Yet on that historic night, they found that Rasputin would be very difficult to kill. Rasputin was invited to a dinner party. A man named Felix was supposed to poison his food and drink. He put poisonous chemicals in his wine and laced it on his pastries but Rasputin ate and drank w... The Murder of Rasputin Essay -- Russia Russian Revolution History Rasputin was an important figure in the Russian Revolution. His acclaimed magical powers helped lessen the symptoms of poor Alexei's hemophilia, an awful condition in which the blood doesn't clot. Because Alexei was the heir to the Romanof throne, Tsar Nicholas II and Alexandra were in a stressful situation. They gave Rasputin certain powers that people were jealous of. The aristocrats could not stand a peasant in such a high position. Peasants could not stand the rumors that the tsarina was sleeping with such a weirdo because he had a reputation for being a pervert. Rasputin was seen as a pest who was ruining Russia. To save the monarchy from revolutions, assassins were assigned to murder Rasputin. On the night of December 17, 1916, they tried to kill Rasputin. The plan was simple. Yet on that historic night, they found that Rasputin would be very difficult to kill. Rasputin was invited to a dinner party. A man named Felix was supposed to poison his food and drink. He put poisonous chemicals in his wine and laced it on his pastries but Rasputin ate and drank w...
Saturday, August 17, 2019
Math Project
Name: Math Manisa No. : 10740 Project 2 Regression Line The following table shows (for the years 1965 to 2000 and for people 18 and over) the total percentage of cigarette smokers, the percentage of males who are smokers, and the percentage of females who are smokers. Percentage of Smokers _________________________________________________________________________________________________ Year Total Population All Males All Females _________________________________________________________________________________________________ 965 42. 4 51. 9 33. 9 1974 37. 1 43. 1 32. 1 1979 33. 5 37. 5 29. 9 1983 32. 35. 1 29. 5 1985 30. 1 32. 6 27. 9 1987 28. 8 31. 2 26. 5 1990 25. 5 28. 22. 8 1992 26. 5 28. 6 24. 6 1993 25. 0 27. 7 22. 5 1995 24. 7 27. 22. 6 2000 23. 3 25. 7 21. 0 Part one 1)Using Excel, draw a Scatter Plot and generate a regression line for the percentages of males who are smokers versus time. Part two 1) The Regression Line for the Percentage of Males who are smokers is (just copy the equation from your Excel spread sheet ) Y= -0. 7766X+1575 2).By the model in 1), the percentage of Males who are smokers in the year 2002 is: 20. 85=21% 2) Using Excel, draw a Scatter Plot and generate a regression line for the percentages of females who are smokers versus time. [pic] Part Two 3). The Regression Line for the Percentage of Females who are smokers is (just copy the equation from your Excel spread sheet ) Y= -0. 4134x+847. 64 4) By the model in 3), the percentage of Females who are smokers in 2002 is: 20. 01=20% â€â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€œ [pic]
Friday, August 16, 2019
Economic growth Essay
Economic growth refers to the increase in the levels of a country’s wealth and capital as a result of positive change in the levels of production of goods and services during a certain period of time. 1 Economic growth is usually ignited by technological advancements and positive external forces. Economic growth can be measured either in terms of nominal growth or real growth. Nominal growth takes inflation into account and thus demonstrates economic growth as Net Domestic Product while real growth does not account for inflation and thus demonstrates economic growth as Gross Domestic Product. Economic growth is usually determined by levels of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). GDP is the preferred means of measuring economic growth because increase or decrease in the GDP levels in a country reflects the real the standards of living of its population. GDP is the total market value of all final products of all final goods and services produced in a country in a given year expressed in money value. 2 GDP of a country equals total consumer investments and government spending, plus the value of exports, minus the value of imports. As such, GDP can be summarised as follows: †¢ GDP = Consumption + gross Investment + Government Spending + (Exports-Imports) or simply GDP = C+I+G+(X-M). However, it must be noted that economic growth entails more than just mere change of scale of economic magnitudes. By its very own nature, growth modifies economic structures thereby adjusting the general technological and social dynamics in a country. Bourguignon points out that economic growth may modify the sectoral structure of an economic unit, leading to close down of firms in one sector and creation of new firms in another. 3 Bourguignon further notes that â€Å"growth modifies the structure of prices, thus affecting the standard of living in households in a way that depends on their consumption preferences†. 4 Moreover, economic growth calls for increased technological innovations which in turn increases the necessity for increased technological knowledge and skills, a situation that would require increased investment in education and better remuneration for holders of such important skills. The final and most important attribute of economic growth is that it reduces the abundant availability of public goods such as adequate water supply and clean air due to increased pollution. Consequently, this may call for intervention and preventive measures in order to maintain adequate supply of the environmental goods. Therefore, economic growth impacts on the economy, social structures and environmental factors of a country. Therefore, people, as the human factors of economic growth remain very important components of economic growth. While economic growth is primarily driven by state dynamics and machinery, the interactions within the societal fabric bear consequential impact on the manner in which economic growth may either be beneficial or harmful to the long-term interest of the people. 5 Therefore, the pursuit of economic growth presents as much benefits as threats to the long-term interests of the people. The different principles and models of economic growth are best demonstrated by different existing theories of economic growth. 1. J. Mokyr, Long-term economic growth and history of technology, Department of Economics and history, Northwestern University, 2005, p. 33 2. R. Lucas, lectures on economic growth, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 2002, p. 41 3. F. Bourguignon, Handbook of economic growth, World Bank, 2006, p. 7 4. F. Bourguignon 5. E. Helpman, The mystery of economic growth, Cambridge: Harvard University, 2004, p. 7 Theoretical background Although there are many theories and models of economic growth, the exogenous theory of economic growth and the endogenous theory of economic growth provide the most vivid theoretical background on issues concerning economic growth. The exogenous theory was advanced by the neo-classical theorists while the endogenous theory was advanced by the modern economic theorists. The exogenous theory of economic growth was advanced by Robert Solow and Trevor Swan. The theory states that â€Å"long-run rate of growth of a system is determined by forces outside the system†. 6The main prediction of this theory is that an economy will always converge towards a steady state of growth which depends absolutely on the rate of technological progress and growth of labour. The theory is based on a series of equations which demonstrate the relationship between labour, time, capital goods, output and investments. The main argument of the exogenous growth theory is based on the assumption that capital expansion is subject to diminishing returns. Therefore, given a fixed amount of labour force, the impact on the output of the last unit of capital accumulated will always be less than the impact on the preceding units. 7 This cycle continues to a point where new amounts of technological progress and labour force adds no new value to capital produced. New technological innovations and labour force output only serve to replenish the loss of value to existing capital due to depreciation. Solow and Swan refer to this as static state of growth. Modern theorists such as Barro, Ormerod, and Romer disagreed with the idea of static state of growth subject to diminishing returns as advanced by the exogenous theorists. They therefore developed a more relevant and realistic theory that came to be referred to as the endogenous theory. Proponents of endogenous growth theory argue that comparisons between trends of production in industrialised countries today and before industrialisation reveal that growth was generated and sustained by forces within as opposed to forces outside the countries. The endogenous theory states that â€Å"economic growth is generated from within a system as a direct result of internal processes†. 8 according to the endogenous theorists, improvement in productivity can be linked to a faster pace of innovation and committed investment in human capital. â€Å"The theory notes that the enhancement of a nation’s human capital will lead to economic growth by means of the development of new form of technology that will lead to efficient and sufficient means of production†. 9 The main focus of the endogenous theorists lies on the need for both government and private sector institutions to nurture innovations through incentives that will encourage individuals to be innovative. As Romer points out, â€Å"the rate of technological progress should not be taken given in a growth model, but rather, appropriate government policies have to be applied in order to raise a country’s growth rate†. 10Such policies should particularly be targeted towards creating higher levels of competition in markets and greater innovation initiatives among individuals. Endogenous theorists identify private investment in research and development as being the key driving force for technical progress. Furthermore, protection of property rights and patents can provide the incentive to engage in research and development. 6. R. M. Solow, Review of economics and statistics, Technical change and the aggregate production function 1957, P. 39 7. Solow 8. P. Romer, Review of economics and statistics, Technical change and the aggregate production function 1957, P. 73 9. Romer p. 74 10. Romer p. 81 Why the pursuit of economic growth is not in people’s long-term interest Concerns to the effect that the pursuit of economic growth is not in people’s long-term interest are very much validated by the current worrying trends of economic growth. While proponents of economic growth cite many benefits associated with economic growth, such benefits only stand to serve people’s short-term interests. It is increasingly becoming apparent that just like the past, the current economic growth initiatives are being undertaken with little regard to long-term repercussions of such initiatives. One of the most important long-term interests that economic growth should guarantee is the safety and conservation of the ecosystem, which will in turn guarantee people’s long-term interests. To the contrary, the aspects of the safety of natural resources and the environmental preservation are the most abused by economic growth. Yet, the gradual destruction of the environment harbours the risk of eventual destruction of the planet earth. Without action on climate change, economic growth and development are likely to generate levels of greenhouse gas emissions that would be very damaging. 11 Economic growth is evidently increasing the demand for fossil-fuel energy, thus the failure to implement appropriate international collective actions will allow manufacturers and consumers to continue with their risky energy consumption behaviours, thereby posing greater threats of adverse climatic change. Adequate supply of the environmental goods is facing continuous challenges as economic growth continues to wreck havoc on the environment. The Stern Review Report on the Economics of Climate Change (2006) identified that the world ecosystem is facing threats of eminent destruction due to increased levels of greenhouse emissions to the atmosphere. According to the Stern Report, greenhouse-gas concentrations in the atmosphere stood at around 430 CO2 equivalents as of 2006, compared to 280ppm before industrial revolution. 12The overwhelming pollution is as a result of combined forces of emissions of toxic gases from the power sectors, transport sectors, building sectors, industry sectors, land use sectors and land use sectors throughout the world. Indeed, these particular sectors represent the key driving forces of economic growth. As pointed out in the Stern Report â€Å"emissions have been driven by economic development. Carbon dioxide emissions have strongly been correlated with GDP per head across time and countries. North America and Europe have produced around 70% of carbon dioxide emissions from energy production since 1850, while developing countries account for less than one quarter of cumulative emissions. †13 Annual emissions are increasing at constant rates year after year. Between 1950 and the year 2000, emission of Carbon dioxide which accounts for the largest share of green house gases, grew by 2. 5% annually. 14The Stern Report further warns that without action to combat climate change, atmospheric concentration of green house gases will continue to rise. â€Å"In a plausible business as usual scenario, they will reach 555ppm CO2e by the year 2035†. 15 Moreover, total emissions are bound to increase more rapidly than emissions per head in tandem with the projections that global population will remain positive until 2050. 11. Stern Review report on economics of change, Impact of climate change on growth and development, November 2006, p. 169 12. Greenhouse gases are usually converted to a common unit, CO2 equivalent, which measures the amount of carbon dioxide that would produce the same global warming potential (GWP) over a given period as the total amount of greenhouse gas in question. 13. Stern Review report on economics of change 14. Stern Review report on economics of change 15. Stern Review report on economics of change These are the most shocking revelations concerning the gradual and unabated destruction that economic growth is imposing on the environment! The future generations remain exposed to the risks of frequent disasters that are associated with global warming. Such risks include food and water shortages, increase air pollution, increased desert cover, rise in sea levels as well as increased frequencies of tornadoes and tsunamis. Obviously, such threats of climatic change will impact negatively on population growth and living conditions for the people in future. Table 1 demonstrates a variety of experiences across different countries of the world. The EU and the economies in transition reported considerable reduction in carbon intensity during the period. However, India went against the grain and significantly increased carbon emissions during the same period. Developing countries registered significant growth in populations as well as growth in GDP per head. Equally notable is the tremendous decrease in the energy intensity of output in India and China. This table clearly demonstrates that despite the high levels of emissions, many countries undertook important economic reforms in the 1990’s, a move that led to marked improvements in utilisation of energy, with many countries registering significant reductions in wasteful use of energy. Risks posed by economic growth are set to reduce with increased adoption of energy efficient production strategies that will ensure environmental conservation while not hurting long-term growth rate targets. Why the pursuit of economic growth is in people’s long-term interest Despite the many reservations that opponents of economic growth have, there exists a general consensus that economic growth is a prerequisite requirement for the well being of the current and future generations. The future can only be secures through persistent creation of wealth and capital. Industrial revolution is credited for having ignited economic growth and eventual improvement of living standards. â€Å"The significance of industrial revolution is best captured by the Malthusian theory of economic growth which argues that industrial revolution and advancement in medicine translated to increased life expectancy and reduced infant mortality†. 15 15. R. Lucas, lectures on economic growth, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 2002, p. 49 According to the Malthusian theory, this industrial revolution culminated to increased income and population growth and eventual increase in income per capita in industrialised counties, and lasted for many years thereafter. 16Therefore, economic growth remains a very important component sustained development of both current and future generations. Conclusion It is evident that economic growth also corresponds to processes of rapid replacement and reorganisation of human activities as well as natural resources, all in the spirit of investment and maximisation of returns. As such, â€Å"this realisation of the exponential abilities of the human race, as facilitated by self-organised life support and cultural systems, is a confirmation of the creative and flexible nature of human beings which however, is highly unpredictable in many ways. 17 Environmental threats posed by economic growth not withstanding, economic growth remains an important transition that this world must undergo. Therefore, the challenges posed by economic growth can best be tackled through creation of a balance between the conflicting concepts economic growth and mitigation of risks posed by economic growth. Economic growth is a manifestation of technological change. â€Å"Yet the essence of technological modernity is non-stationery: many scholars have acknowledged that technological change has become self propelled and autocatalytic, whereby change feeds on change. Thus unlike other form of growths, technology is not bound from above. Inventions have become a norm thus are unstoppable by forces of any nature. †18 The stern Report acknowledges that â€Å"the relationship between economic growth and CO2 emissions is not immutable. There are practical examples where change in energy technologies, the structure of economies and the pattern of demand have reduced the responsiveness of emissions to income growth, particularly in the richest countries. Strong deliberate policy choices will be needed, however, to decarbonise both developing countries on the scale required for climate stabilisation†. 19 This is in itself a confirmation that effective protection and conservation of the environmental goods can be achieved tremendously through the adoption of energy efficient production strategies that will ensure environmental conservation while not hurting long-term growth rate targets. However, wide reaching strategies should be employed in the noble cause of environmental protection. Strategies that are over reliant on reduction of fossil fuels may not be enough to stop the overwhelming emissions of poisonous gases. Other strategies such as radical shift shifts towards service based economies have proved effective in slowing down or reversing the increase in emissions of poisonous gases to the atmosphere. 20There should also be increased lobbying for the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol of Climate Change by all countries in the world, including the United States. Being the world’s largest economy, the United States releases the highest amounts of toxic gas emissions to the atmosphere, yet the country has refused to recognise the Kyoto protocol which seeks to protect the world from being further exposed to the threat of climatic change. 16. R. Lucas, lectures on economic growth, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 2002, p. 48 17. E. Helpman, The mystery of economic growth, Cambridge: Harvard University, 2004, p. 16 18. J. Mokyr, Long-term economic growth and history of technology, Department of Economics and history, Northwestern University, 2005, p. 37 19. Stern Review report on economics of change, Impact of climate change on growth and development, November 2006, p. 169 20. Stern Review report on economics of change Bibliography Aghion, P. & Steven N. Durlauf, (Ed), Handbook of economic growth, Vol. 1B. Elsevier B. V. , 2005. Bourguignon, F. Handbook of economic growth, World Bank, 2006. Helpman, E. The mystery of economic growth, Cambridge: Harvard University, 2004 Larry E. J. Neoclassical models of endogenous growth: the effects of physical policy, innovations and fluctuations, Elsevier B. V. 2005 p. 9-32. Lucas, R. lectures on economic growth, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 2002 Mokyr, J. Long-term economic growth and history of technology, Department of Economics and history, Northwestern University, 2005, p. 32 – 43 Romer, P. Journal of Political Economy, Endogenous technological change, Vol. 98, No. 5, Oct. 1990. p. 71-102. Solow R. M. Review of economics and statistics, Technical change and the aggregate production function 1957, P. 37-51 Stern Review report on economics of change, Impact of climate change on growth and development, November 2006, retrieved on 29 March 2007, < http://www. hm-treasury. gov. uk/media/3/2/Chapter_7_Projecting_the_Growth_of_Greenhouse-Gas_Emissions. pdf
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